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Microbiology Class

Microbiology Class

Best Microbiology Resource Hub for Notes, Seminars, Courses

  • Welcome to MicrobiologyClass | Africa’s Leading Microbiology Platform
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  • Bacteriology
  • Biotechnology
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    • HOW TO CREATE YOUR EUROPASS CV AND EUROPASS COVER LETTER FOR EU APPLICATIONS (JOBS, RESEARCH, EDUCATION)
    • How to write a COVER LETTER – Faculty, Postgraduate, Postdoc – sample attached
    • RESEARCH PROPOSAL TIPS FOR GRANTS & PROJECTS
    • Sample template on how to write your research achievements and results when applying for a fellowship or grant
    • Access to scholarship and funding opportunities for conferences, study (B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.), postdoctoral fellowships and research grants
    • Steps for a Successful Post-Doctoral Fellowship Application, Grant Call or Scholarships for Postgraduate Studies Abroad – A Personal Memoir 
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    • The Proposal Writer’s Guide
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  • Virology

Author: Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu

Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu is a distinguished Microbiologist, Researcher, and Educator with an extensive international profile. He is a Fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt (AvH) Foundation, Germany, and currently serves as a Research Fellow at the Brandenburg University of Technology (BTU) Cottbus-Senftenberg, Germany. His research focuses on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and the ecological impacts of antibiotics, with particular emphasis on soil ecosystems. He is the founder and developer of Africa’s leading microbiology platform, www.MicrobiologyClass.net, a widely recognized knowledge hub that supports students, professionals, and researchers across Africa and beyond. The platform is a key resource for advancing microbiology education and research with global reach and relevance. Throughout his career, Dr. Ejikeugwu has held several prestigious international research appointments and fellowships, including a Research Fellowship at the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Leipzig, Germany, within the soilRESIST project, where he investigated the effects of antibiotic mixtures on soil microbiomes. He has also completed postdoctoral fellowships at the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Berlin, Germany, under the DAAD program, and at Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, under the MIF fellowship scheme. In recognition of his contributions to AMR research, he received the Young Investigator Award on AMR from Institut Mérieux, France, in 2021. He is also a recipient of the NIH CAMRA grant supporting research on AMR in poultry environments. Dr. Ejikeugwu was a member of the Global Young Academy (GYA), Germany, and holds memberships in several professional organizations, including Applied Microbiology International (AMI), the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID), the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), and the Nigerian Society for Microbiology (NSM). He earned his PhD. in Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Biotechnology in 2017 from Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. In his current role as Reader at ESUT, Nigeria, he is deeply engaged in teaching, mentorship, and research leadership. He supervises undergraduate and postgraduate students, fostering academic development and strengthening capacity in microbiology and AMR research. Driven by a sustained commitment to scientific excellence, education, and international collaboration, Dr. Ejikeugwu continues to contribute significantly to the advancement of microbiology and AMR research worldwide.
  • Home
  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • Page 5
TYPES OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
  • Antibiotic Resistance / Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
  • Antimicrobial Agents & Antibiotics
  • Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) & Antibiogram
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

TYPES OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 27, 2023

Bacteria have evolved to survive in diverse environments. They survive exposure to harsh chemicals including […]

BRIEF HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
  • Antibiotic Resistance / Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
  • Antimicrobial Agents & Antibiotics
  • Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) & Antibiogram
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

BRIEF HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 27, 2023

Antimicrobial agents, particularly antibiotics are the most significant class of pharmaceuticals and are one of […]

PCR TECHNIQUE
  • Biotechnology
  • Molecular Microbiology
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

PCR TECHNIQUE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 24, 2023

PCR is the acronym for “polymerase chain reaction”. Polymerase chain reaction is the molecular biology […]

ENZYMES USED IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY TECHNIQUES
  • Biotechnology
  • Molecular Microbiology
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

ENZYMES USED IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY TECHNIQUES

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 24, 2023

Restriction endonucleases are DNA cutting enzymes specifically found and isolated from bacteria; and which nick […]

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN PLASMODIUM INFECTION
  • Public Health & Parasitology

TERMINOLOGIES USED IN PLASMODIUM INFECTION

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 14, 2023

References Aschengrau A and Seage G.R (2013). Essentials of Epidemiology in Public Health. Third edition. […]

LIFE CYCLE OF MOSQUITO
  • Public Health & Parasitology

LIFE CYCLE OF MOSQUITO

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 14, 2023

Mosquito species including those of Anopheles carry out effective breeding and survival in freshwaters (i.e. […]

HUMAN PLASMODIUM SPECIES: causative agents of malaria
  • Public Health & Parasitology

HUMAN PLASMODIUM SPECIES: causative agents of malaria

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 14, 2023

Malaria in humans is majorly caused by four (4) species of Plasmodium. Plasmodium species are […]

Sterile & Non-Sterile Pharmaceutical Products
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Sterile & Non-Sterile Pharmaceutical Products

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 14, 2023

Sterile pharmaceutical products are defined as sensitive pharmaceutical products that should be free from living micro-organisms, […]

TRICHINELLOSIS
  • Public Health & Parasitology

TRICHINELLOSIS

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 13, 2023

Trichinellosis or trichinosis is a zoonotic parasitic disease caused by tissue nematodes or roundworms after […]

PARAGONIMIASIS
  • Public Health & Parasitology

PARAGONIMIASIS

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 13, 2023

Paragonimiasis or lung-fluke infection is a protozoan lung disease that resembles bacterial tuberculosis in humans; […]

DRACUNCULIASIS
  • Public Health & Parasitology

DRACUNCULIASIS

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 13, 2023

Dracunculiasis is a crippling parasitic disease that is caused by a tissue nematode (roundworm) which […]

CONTROL OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
  • Antibiotic Resistance / Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

CONTROL OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 10, 2023

Antibiotic resistance knows no border of any country since there is free movement of both […]

IMPACT AND COST OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE ON PUBLIC HEALTH AND THE ECONOMY OF A NATION
  • Antibiotic Resistance / Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

IMPACT AND COST OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE ON PUBLIC HEALTH AND THE ECONOMY OF A NATION

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 10, 2023

Antimicrobial agents (antibiotics in particular) have helped countless numbers of people worldwide owing to their […]

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ANTIBIOTIC (ANTIMICROBIAL) RESISTANCE
  • Antibiotic Resistance / Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO ANTIBIOTIC (ANTIMICROBIAL) RESISTANCE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 10, 2023

Antibiotic resistance is a global health problem that bedevils our health sector and threatens our […]

SPECIFIC MECHANISMS OF ACQUIRING RESISTANCE BY BACTERIA/MICROBIAL PATHOGENS
  • Antibiotic Resistance / Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

SPECIFIC MECHANISMS OF ACQUIRING RESISTANCE BY BACTERIA/MICROBIAL PATHOGENS

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 10, 2023

An antibiotic has to go through a number of steps in order to exert its […]

MODE (MECHANISMS) OF TRANSFER OF RESISTANCE GENES
  • Antibiotic Resistance / Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

MODE (MECHANISMS) OF TRANSFER OF RESISTANCE GENES

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 10, 2023

Antibiotic resistant bacteria owe their drug insensitivity and ingenuity in developing resistance against our therapeutic […]

ANTIMICROBIAL (ANTIBIOTIC) RESISTANCE: definition, selective pressure and clonal selection
  • Antimicrobial Agents & Antibiotics
  • Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) & Antibiogram
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

ANTIMICROBIAL (ANTIBIOTIC) RESISTANCE: definition, selective pressure and clonal selection

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 10, 2023

Antibiotic or antimicrobial resistance (AMR) is a phenomenon that occurs when bacteria are not killed […]

TYPES OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
  • Antibiotic Resistance / Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

TYPES OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 10, 2023

The resistance of a microbial cell to the potent action of antimicrobial agents or antibiotics […]

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN TO AVOID CONTAMINATION IN CELL CULTURE
  • Cell Culture Notes

PRECAUTIONS TAKEN TO AVOID CONTAMINATION IN CELL CULTURE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 9, 2023

Contamination is a great enemy in the cell culture laboratory. Thus all aseptic techniques must […]

CELL LINES
  • Cell Culture Notes

CELL LINES

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 9, 2023

OVERVIEW OF CELL LINES A cell line is a cell that has undergone mutation and […]

BASIS FOR A SUCCESSFUL CELL CULTURE & AREAS THAT ENCOURAGED CELL CULTURE DEVELOPMENT
  • Cell Culture Notes

BASIS FOR A SUCCESSFUL CELL CULTURE & AREAS THAT ENCOURAGED CELL CULTURE DEVELOPMENT

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 9, 2023

Having a cell culture without any form of contamination is paramount in the cell culture […]

CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF CELL CULTURE
  • Cell Culture Notes

CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF CELL CULTURE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 9, 2023

In the cell culture laboratory, there are many cell culture techniques that are routinely engaged […]

Chromatic Vancomycin Resistant Enterococci (VRE) agar
  • Culture media
  • Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) & Antibiogram
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

Chromatic Vancomycin Resistant Enterococci (VRE) agar

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 8, 2023

Chromatic VRE is a selective and differential chromogenic medium used for the qualitative and presumptive detection […]

HERD IMMUNITY
  • Epidemiology
  • Immunology & Immune System

HERD IMMUNITY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 3, 2023

Herd immunity is a group resistance of a population against a particular disease and the […]

THE TRIANGLE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY (Epidemiological triad)
  • Epidemiology

THE TRIANGLE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY (Epidemiological triad)

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 3, 2023

The characteristics of a disease are largely dependent on the relationship between the environment, the […]

EXPERIMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY
  • Epidemiology

EXPERIMENTAL EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 1, 2023

Experimental epidemiological study can also be referred to as clinical trials. It is an analytical […]

SOURCES OF CASES & CONTROL IN AN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY
  • Epidemiology

SOURCES OF CASES & CONTROL IN AN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 1, 2023

SOURCES OF CASES IN AN EPIDEMIOLOGICAL STUDY Cases in an epidemiological study can be sourced […]

ECOLOGICAL STUDIES
  • Epidemiology

ECOLOGICAL STUDIES

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 1, 2023

Ecological epidemiological studies are observational descriptive studies that investigate the rate of a disease in […]

CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY  
  • Epidemiology

CROSS-SECTIONAL STUDY  

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 1, 2023

Cross-sectional studies are descriptive observational epidemiological studies which investigates the prevalence or occurrence of a […]

PROSPECTIVE (COHORT) STUDY
  • Epidemiology

PROSPECTIVE (COHORT) STUDY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 1, 2023

Prospective or cohort studies are an observational analytic epidemiological study in which the starting point […]

  • Epidemiology

RETROSPECTIVE (CASE-CONTROL) STUDY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 1, 2023

Retrospective study which can also be called case control study is an observational analytic epidemiologic […]

CASE REPORTS & CASE SERIES
  • Epidemiology

CASE REPORTS & CASE SERIES

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 1, 2023

Case reports are epidemiological studies that consist of the careful and thorough or comprehensive description […]

ANALYTICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY
  • Epidemiology

ANALYTICAL EPIDEMIOLOGY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • March 1, 2023

Analytical epidemiological study is a more detailed and all-encompassing epidemiological study than the descriptive epidemiological […]

SPUTUM CULTURE TECHNIQUE
  • Microbe Lab
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

SPUTUM CULTURE TECHNIQUE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 27, 2023

Sputum culture is often recommended in the diagnoses of lower respiratory tract infection (e.g. bacterial […]

URINE CULTURE  TECHNIQUE
  • Microbe Lab
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

URINE CULTURE  TECHNIQUE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 27, 2023

Urine culture is performed in order to specifically identify organisms that may be causing a […]

BLOOD CULTURE TECHNIQUE
  • Microbe Lab
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

BLOOD CULTURE TECHNIQUE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 27, 2023

Blood culture is the most important diagnostic method for detecting and diagnosing bacteraemia (presence of […]

STOOL CULTURE TECHNIQUE
  • Microbe Lab
  • Bacteriology
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

STOOL CULTURE TECHNIQUE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 27, 2023

Stool culture is demanded in the bacteriology laboratory as method for detecting and diagnosing enteric […]

LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS OF FUNGAL INFECTIONS/DISEASES
  • Microbe Lab
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

LABORATORY DIAGNOSIS OF FUNGAL INFECTIONS/DISEASES

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 26, 2023

The laboratory diagnosis of fungal infection is mainly based on microscopy and cultural techniques. Several […]

MYCOTOXINS
  • Mycology

MYCOTOXINS

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 26, 2023

Mycotoxins are exotoxins produced by fungi. The area of microbiology that studies fungi and the […]

ORAL THRUSH (ORAL CANDIDIASIS)
  • Mycology

ORAL THRUSH (ORAL CANDIDIASIS)

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 26, 2023

Oral thrush (oral candidiasis) is a localized fungal infection caused by C. albicans in the […]

Classification of parasites that parasitize humans
  • Public Health & Parasitology

Classification of parasites that parasitize humans

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 24, 2023

Generally, parasites can be classified into two major groups: Endoparasites are parasites that live inside […]

TRANSPEPTIDATION REACTION
  • Microbial Physiology & Metabolism

TRANSPEPTIDATION REACTION

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 22, 2023

Transpeptidation reaction is the chemical reaction that forms the peptide cross-links or bonds during the […]

BACTERIAL CELL WALL
  • Microbial Physiology & Metabolism

BACTERIAL CELL WALL

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 22, 2023

Cell wall is a layer that is present outside the plasma or cytoplasmic membrane of […]

EUKARYOTIC CELLS
  • Microbial Physiology & Metabolism

EUKARYOTIC CELLS

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 22, 2023

Eukaryotic cells are organisms or cells that have a membrane-bound nucleus. They are distinct group […]

CLASSIFICATION OF MUTATION BY THEIR EFFECTS ON THE DNA MOLECULE
  • Biotechnology

CLASSIFICATION OF MUTATION BY THEIR EFFECTS ON THE DNA MOLECULE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 21, 2023

Based on their effects on the structural integrity of the DNA molecule, mutations can be […]

MUTATION: definition, types and causes
  • Biotechnology

MUTATION: definition, types and causes

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 21, 2023

The term mutation is derived from the Latin word “mutare” – which means “to change”. […]

Molecular Manipulation of Microorganisms: significance and applications
  • Biotechnology

Molecular Manipulation of Microorganisms: significance and applications

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 21, 2023

Microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, algae and viruses are important tools used for a wide variety […]

LIPOSOMES: relevance & applications
  • Biotechnology

LIPOSOMES: relevance & applications

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 21, 2023

The phrase liposome is derived from two Greek words: Lipos which means “fat” and Soma […]

  • Epidemiology

Portal of Entry of Infectious Agents into the Human Body

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 19, 2023

References Black, J.G. (2008). Microbiology:  Principles and Explorations (7th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: J. Wiley & […]

HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP): Building Effective Food Safety Control Systems for Regulatory Compliance and Risk Mitigation
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology
  • Food Microbiology

HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP): Building Effective Food Safety Control Systems for Regulatory Compliance and Risk Mitigation

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • February 18, 2023

Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP) is an internationally recognized, science-based food safety management […]

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