The laboratory diagnosis of fungal infection is mainly based on microscopy and cultural techniques. Several […]
MYCOTOXINS
Mycotoxins are exotoxins produced by fungi. The area of microbiology that studies fungi and the […]
ORAL THRUSH (ORAL CANDIDIASIS)
Oral thrush (oral candidiasis) is a localized fungal infection caused by C. albicans in the […]
Classification of parasites that parasitize humans
Generally, parasites can be classified into two major groups: Endoparasites are parasites that live inside […]
TRANSPEPTIDATION REACTION
Transpeptidation reaction is the chemical reaction that forms the peptide cross-links or bonds during the […]
BACTERIAL CELL WALL
Cell wall is a layer that is present outside the plasma or cytoplasmic membrane of […]
EUKARYOTIC CELLS
Eukaryotic cells are organisms or cells that have a membrane-bound nucleus. They are distinct group […]
CLASSIFICATION OF MUTATION BY THEIR EFFECTS ON THE DNA MOLECULE
Based on their effects on the structural integrity of the DNA molecule, mutations can be […]
MUTATION: definition, types and causes
The term mutation is derived from the Latin word “mutare” – which means “to change”. […]
Molecular Manipulation of Microorganisms: significance and applications
Microorganisms including bacteria, fungi, algae and viruses are important tools used for a wide variety […]
LIPOSOMES: relevance & applications
The phrase liposome is derived from two Greek words: Lipos which means “fat” and Soma […]
Portal of Entry of Infectious Agents into the Human Body
Infectious diseases remain a major cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide despite significant advances in […]
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP)
Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point (HACCP) is a preventive, science-based food safety management system designed […]
Indicator Organisms
Indicator organisms are microorganisms used as biological markers to assess the microbiological quality, hygienic status, […]
Feeding the Future: How Single Cell Proteins Can Help Solve Global Malnutrition
As the global population races past 8 billion and continues to rise, the urgency to […]
Food Poisoning
Food safety remains one of the most significant public health concerns worldwide. This is because […]
Food Borne Diseases
Food borne diseases represent one of the most significant public health challenges worldwide. It affects […]
Sources of Microbial Contamination of Food
Food is continuously exposed to a wide spectrum of microorganisms throughout its journey from primary […]
Extrinsic Factors of Food Spoilage
Food spoilage is a complex biological and chemical process that results in the deterioration of […]
Intrinsic Factors of Food Spoilage
Food spoilage represents a complex biological and chemical phenomenon that diminishes the safety, nutritional quality, […]
Food Spoilage
Food is a fundamental requirement for human survival. It provides the nutrients and energy necessary […]
Collection and processing of various clinical samples in the microbiology lab
COLLECTION OF SPUTUM Sputum specimens are collected from patient’s suspected to have respiratory disorders example […]
Specimen Collection in Microbiology Lab
The sample collection unit is one of the most important units in the clinical microbiology […]
IMPORTANCE OF MICROORGANISMS
Microorganisms are studied for diverse reasons. These microscopic forms of life play tremendous significant roles […]
IMMUNOGLOBULIN D (IgD)
Immunoglobulin D (IgD) is an antibody with the basic four polypeptide structure of an immunoglobulin […]
IMMUNOGLOBULIN G (IgG): Structure, Function, and Clinical Significance
Structural Characteristics and Molecular Properties Immunoglobulin G (IgG) is a monomeric antibody that represents the […]
IMMUNOGLOBULIN E (IgE)
Immunoglobulin E (IgE) is an antibody that is known to bind to host tissue cells […]
IMMUNOGLOBULIN M (IgM)
Immunoglobulin M (IgM) is an antibody that mainly exist as a pentamer i.e. it consists […]
COLOSTRUM
Colostrum is the first secretion of the mammary gland (breast) produced before proper lactation commences […]
IMMUNOGLOBULIN A (IgA)
Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is an antibody found in serum (as a monomer of about 150,000 […]
TYPES OF ANTIBODIES
Immunoglobulins do not actually kill or eliminate pathogenic microorganisms or antigens from the body. The […]
ANTIBODIES (Immunoglobulins)
Antibodies are soluble protein molecules produced by the B cells of the immune system in […]
CHARACTERISTICS OF ANTIGENS
However antigenic a foreign molecule/substance may be, to be immunogenic and qualify to be called […]
Care of the Microscope: How to Properly Care for and Maintain a Microscope
The microscope is one of the most indispensable instruments in microbiology and biomedical science. Its […]
Types of Microscopes
There abound several numbers of microscopes that can be used by a microscopist to view specimens, samples, […]
Understanding Microscope Parts: What They Do and How to Use Them
The microscope remains one of the most fundamental instruments in biological and material sciences, enabling […]
DNA Viruses: Structure, Genome Characteristics, and Intracellular Replication
DNA viruses are a major group of viruses distinguished by the presence of deoxyribonucleic acid […]
Viral Replication: Intracellular Multiplication and Production of New Virions
Viral replication refers to the biological process through which viruses generate new copies of themselves […]
Morphology of viruses: structural diversity and functional organization
Virus morphology refers to the size, shape, and structural organization of viruses. Although viruses are […]
Viral Compositions: Structural and Functional Diversity of Viral Communities across Environmental and Host-Associated Systems
Viral composition refers to the collective assemblage of viral entities present within a defined environment, […]
Methods used for the Inactivation of Viruses
Viruses can remain infectious in air, water, on surfaces, in biological materials, and within industrial […]
Chemical and Physical Properties of Viruses
Viruses possess a highly organized structure composed primarily of nucleic acid and protein, with some […]
Viroids: Minimal Infectious Agents Composed of Naked Single-Stranded Circular RNA (ssRNA)
Viroids are the smallest known infectious agents. They represent a unique class of sub-viral pathogens that […]
Prions: Unique Proteinaceous Infectious Agents and their Distinction from Viruses
Prions are unique sub-viral infectious agents composed primarily of proteins. Unlike conventional infectious organisms such […]
Bacterial Transformation (The Transforming Principle)
Fredrick Griffith showed in 1928 that deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is the genetic material of the […]
RIBONUCLEIC ACID (RNA)
An understanding of the nucleic acid molecules which include deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid […]
PROTEIN STRUCTURE – types and function
Proteins are a group of polypeptides that form a molecule of specific biological function; and […]
PURINES & PYRIMIDINES
Purines are heterocyclic aromatic organic compound that consist of a pyrimidine ring fused to an […]
NUCLEOTIDES
Nucleotides are nucleosides with one or more phosphate groups covalently attached to the 3′ or […]
Mechanisms for uptake of nutrients by microorganisms – diffusion & active transport
Microbial cells employ a variety of mechanisms to uptake nutrients (including macromolecules, inorganic ions, water […]