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Microbiology Class

Microbiology Class

Best Microbiology Resource Hub for Notes, Seminars, Courses

  • Welcome to MicrobiologyClass | Africa’s Leading Microbiology Platform
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    • Autobiography of the Founder of MicrobiologyClass.net
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  • Bacteriology
  • Biotechnology
  • Careers in Microbiology
  • Environmental & Soil Microbiology
  • Epidemiology
  • Food Microbiology
  • General Microbiology
  • Immunology & Immune System
  • Industrial Microbiology
  • Medical Microbiology
  • Microscopy & Microscope
  • Molecular Microbiology
  • Mycology
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology
  • Project & Seminar Topics
  • Public Health & Parasitology
  • Research, Proposal & Scholarships
    • HOW TO CREATE YOUR EUROPASS CV AND EUROPASS COVER LETTER FOR EU APPLICATIONS (JOBS, RESEARCH, EDUCATION)
    • How to write a COVER LETTER – Faculty, Postgraduate, Postdoc – sample attached
    • RESEARCH PROPOSAL TIPS FOR GRANTS & PROJECTS
    • Sample template on how to write your research achievements and results when applying for a fellowship or grant
    • Access to scholarship and funding opportunities for conferences, study (B.Sc., M.Sc., Ph.D.), postdoctoral fellowships and research grants
    • Steps for a Successful Post-Doctoral Fellowship Application, Grant Call or Scholarships for Postgraduate Studies Abroad – A Personal Memoir 
    • CURRENT CALLS & Scholarships for Training, Postdoc, Higher Education & Jobs
    • The Proposal Writer’s Guide
    • COMMON MISTAKES INTERNATIONAL STUDENTS MAKE IN SCHOLARSHIP APPLICATIONS
    • Important Microbiology Websites for Study & Opportunities
  • Virology

Author: Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu

Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu is a distinguished Microbiologist, Researcher, and Educator with an extensive international profile. He is a Fellow of the Alexander von Humboldt (AvH) Foundation, Germany, and currently serves as a Research Fellow at the Brandenburg University of Technology (BTU) Cottbus-Senftenberg, Germany. His research focuses on antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and the ecological impacts of antibiotics, with particular emphasis on soil ecosystems. He is the founder and developer of Africa’s leading microbiology platform, www.MicrobiologyClass.net, a widely recognized knowledge hub that supports students, professionals, and researchers across Africa and beyond. The platform is a key resource for advancing microbiology education and research with global reach and relevance. Throughout his career, Dr. Ejikeugwu has held several prestigious international research appointments and fellowships, including a Research Fellowship at the Helmholtz Centre for Environmental Research (UFZ), Leipzig, Germany, within the soilRESIST project, where he investigated the effects of antibiotic mixtures on soil microbiomes. He has also completed postdoctoral fellowships at the Federal Institute for Materials Research and Testing (BAM), Berlin, Germany, under the DAAD program, and at Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan, under the MIF fellowship scheme. In recognition of his contributions to AMR research, he received the Young Investigator Award on AMR from Institut Mérieux, France, in 2021. He is also a recipient of the NIH CAMRA grant supporting research on AMR in poultry environments. Dr. Ejikeugwu was a member of the Global Young Academy (GYA), Germany, and holds memberships in several professional organizations, including Applied Microbiology International (AMI), the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases (ESCMID), the American Society for Microbiology (ASM), and the Nigerian Society for Microbiology (NSM). He earned his PhD. in Pharmaceutical Microbiology and Biotechnology in 2017 from Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. In his current role as Reader at ESUT, Nigeria, he is deeply engaged in teaching, mentorship, and research leadership. He supervises undergraduate and postgraduate students, fostering academic development and strengthening capacity in microbiology and AMR research. Driven by a sustained commitment to scientific excellence, education, and international collaboration, Dr. Ejikeugwu continues to contribute significantly to the advancement of microbiology and AMR research worldwide.
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Observational Epidemiological Study: Association Between Exposure and Outcome in Population
  • Epidemiology

Observational Epidemiological Study: Association Between Exposure and Outcome in Population

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 29, 2022

Observational epidemiological studies are research designs used to investigate the distribution and determinants of health-related […]

DENTAL CARIES
  • Microbiology of Oral Infection

DENTAL CARIES

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 29, 2022

Dental caries is simply defined as the decaying of the teeth. It can also be […]

GRAM STAINING TECHNIQUE
  • Microbe Lab
  • Bacteriology
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

GRAM STAINING TECHNIQUE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 29, 2022

Gram staining is a general purpose bacteriological identification technique used in the bacteriology section of […]

FUNGAL TAXONOMY (DIVISION)
  • Mycology

FUNGAL TAXONOMY (DIVISION)

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 29, 2022

Fungal classification or taxonomy is usually based on the sexual spores produced by the organisms. […]

NITRATE REDUCTION TEST
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

NITRATE REDUCTION TEST

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Nitrate reduction test is used to identify pathogenic bacteria that have the ability to convert […]

TRIPLE SUGAR IRON AGAR (TSIA)
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

TRIPLE SUGAR IRON AGAR (TSIA)

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Triple sugar iron agar (TSIA) is a differential agar medium used to different lactose-fermenting Enterobacteriaceae […]

VOGES PROSKAUER TEST
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

VOGES PROSKAUER TEST

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Voges-Proskauer (VP) test is used to identify Gram negative bacteria that produce 2,3-butanediol (acetoin) from […]

SUGAR (GLUCOSE) UTILIZATION TEST
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

SUGAR (GLUCOSE) UTILIZATION TEST

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Sugar (glucose) utilization test or carbohydrate fermentation test is used to detect bacteria that ferment […]

CITRATE TEST
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

CITRATE TEST

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Citrate test is used to identify Enterobacteriaceae that utilize citrate or citric acid as their […]

UREASE TEST
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

UREASE TEST

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Urease test is used to detect and differentiate Enterobacteriaceae that produce urease enzymes from those […]

INDOLE TEST
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

INDOLE TEST

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Indole test (Tryptophan hydrolysis) is used to identify Enterobacteria that breakdown tryptophan (an amino acid) […]

OXIDASE TEST
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

OXIDASE TEST

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Oxidase test is used to identify microorganisms that produce the enzyme, cytochrome-c oxidase. Cytochrome-c oxidase, […]

CATALASE TEST
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

CATALASE TEST

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Catalase test is used to identify microorganisms that produce catalase enzyme. It is used to […]

COAGULASE TEST
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

COAGULASE TEST

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Coagulase test is used to distinguish pathogenic Staphylococcus aureus (which is coagulase positive) from nonpathogenic […]

BIOCHEMICAL TESTS USED IN BACTERIOLOGY LAB
  • Biochemical Tests in Microbiology Lab

BIOCHEMICAL TESTS USED IN BACTERIOLOGY LAB

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 28, 2022

Biochemical tests are series of experiments that can be used to differentiate bacteria based on […]

TYPES OF MICROBIAL CELLS
  • Microbial Physiology & Metabolism

TYPES OF MICROBIAL CELLS

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

The cell as we know is the basic unit of life. Microorganisms are cellular entities, […]

CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROORGANISMS USED FOR BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES
  • Biotechnology

CHARACTERISTICS OF MICROORGANISMS USED FOR BIOTECHNOLOGICAL PROCESSES

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

As one of the world’s most research-intensive industry, biotechnology corporations are high-profit making enterprises that […]

IMPORTANCE OF NORMAL MICROFLORA
  • Bacteriology

IMPORTANCE OF NORMAL MICROFLORA

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

After exposure to an infectious agent, the body becomes contaminated by the agent, and the […]

PASTEURIZATION
  • Food Microbiology

PASTEURIZATION

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Pasteurization is simply defined as the process of heating food during its production in order […]

LAMINAR FLOW BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINET
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

LAMINAR FLOW BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINET

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Laminar flow biological safety cabinet is an air filtration system which protects a laboratory worker […]

MAJOR SCOPE / AREAS OF MICROBIOLOGY
  • Careers in Microbiology
  • General Microbiology

MAJOR SCOPE / AREAS OF MICROBIOLOGY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Industrial Microbiology The use of microbes by man to produce beneficial products is an ancient […]

RESPONSES OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
  • Immunology & Immune System

RESPONSES OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

The immune system is a complex system which consists of collection of cells, organs, tissues […]

Characteristics of Viruses
  • Virology

Characteristics of Viruses

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Viruses are acellular infectious agents that occupy a unique position at the interface of living […]

ASEPTIC TECHNIQUE
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

ASEPTIC TECHNIQUE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Aseptic technique refers to all the quality control and precautionary measures taken by microbiologists in […]

MICROBIAL COUNT: Total Count & Viable Count
  • Microbe Lab
  • Microbial Physiology & Metabolism
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

MICROBIAL COUNT: Total Count & Viable Count

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Viable cell count: Viable cell count gives an estimate of the total number of living […]

CENTRAL DOGMA (FRAMEWORK) OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
  • Biotechnology
  • Molecular Microbiology

CENTRAL DOGMA (FRAMEWORK) OF MOLECULAR BIOLOGY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

The central framework of molecular biology otherwise known as the “central dogma” is the starting […]

SHAPES / MORPHOLOGY OF BACTERIA
  • Bacteriology

SHAPES / MORPHOLOGY OF BACTERIA

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

All bacterial cells are extremely infinitesimal (i.e. microscopic), and are never visible to the naked […]

MICROBIAL METABOLITES: PRIMARY METABOLITES AND SECONDARY METABOLITES
  • Biotechnology
  • Industrial Microbiology

MICROBIAL METABOLITES: PRIMARY METABOLITES AND SECONDARY METABOLITES

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Microorganisms, including bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes, are among nature’s most prolific chemists. They are capable […]

SLIDE RACK & STAINING RACK
  • Microbe Lab
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

SLIDE RACK & STAINING RACK

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Slide rack is a piece of vessel used for packing and storing clean glass slides […]

PETRI DISHES
  • Culture media
  • Microbe Lab
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

PETRI DISHES

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Petri dishes are shallow glass or plastic plates that are cylindrical in shape, and which […]

Anaerobic Digestion: Principles, Microbial Ecology, and Applications
  • Environmental & Soil Microbiology
  • Industrial Microbiology

Anaerobic Digestion: Principles, Microbial Ecology, and Applications

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Anaerobic digestion (AD) refers to the biological breakdown of complex organic materials, particularly those of […]

PHENOTYPIC DETECTION METHODS OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE (AMR) IN PATHOGENIC BACTERIA
  • Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST) & Antibiogram
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

PHENOTYPIC DETECTION METHODS OF ANTIMICROBIAL RESISTANCE (AMR) IN PATHOGENIC BACTERIA

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

The expression “phenotypic” is from the word phenotype, which means “the observable characteristics of an […]

MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTIBIOTICS: Antibacterial Agents
  • Antimicrobial Agents & Antibiotics
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

MECHANISM OF ACTION OF ANTIBIOTICS: Antibacterial Agents

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

The antibiotics described above including those not described in this work are used to treat […]

GENOMIC DNA
  • Biotechnology
  • Molecular Microbiology

GENOMIC DNA

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Genomic DNA is a double helix structure that is composed of several components including purines […]

REASONS FOR THE HIGH FREQUENCY OF PARASITES & PARASITIC DISEASES IN TROPICAL & SUBTROPICAL REGIONS
  • Public Health & Parasitology

REASONS FOR THE HIGH FREQUENCY OF PARASITES & PARASITIC DISEASES IN TROPICAL & SUBTROPICAL REGIONS

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Parasitic diseases are usually common in rainforest parts of the world (the tropical and subtropical […]

PYROGEN TEST
  • Food Microbiology
  • Pharmaceutical Microbiology

PYROGEN TEST

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

A pyrogen is simply defined as a fever-causing (inducing) agent that includes toxins of microorganisms. […]

CELLS THAT CAN BE CULTURED IN VITRO USING CELL CULTURE TECHNIQUE
  • Cell Culture Notes

CELLS THAT CAN BE CULTURED IN VITRO USING CELL CULTURE TECHNIQUE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

The living cells that are cultured may include: When a whole organ or intact organ […]

Epidemiological Studies: Key Concepts, Designs, Methods, and Applications
  • Epidemiology

Epidemiological Studies: Key Concepts, Designs, Methods, and Applications

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Epidemiological studies are a foundational component of public health research, providing systematic methods to investigate […]

MICROBIOTA OF DENTAL DISEASES: Dental Plaque, Dental Caries, Gingivitis, Periodontitis
  • Microbiology of Oral Infection

MICROBIOTA OF DENTAL DISEASES: Dental Plaque, Dental Caries, Gingivitis, Periodontitis

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

The microbiota of dental diseases describes the microorganisms (inclusive of normal flora of the oral […]

PREPARATION OF BACTERIAL SMEAR & HEAT FIXING
  • Medical Microbiology
  • Microbe Lab
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

PREPARATION OF BACTERIAL SMEAR & HEAT FIXING

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 27, 2022

Bacterial smear is defined as a dehydrated or dried preparation of a bacterial suspension (cells) […]

FUNGAL MORPHOLOGY
  • Mycology

FUNGAL MORPHOLOGY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 26, 2022

Fungi unlike other groups of microorganisms possess or have unique structures which distinguish them from […]

PARTS OF A CELL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
  • Microbial Physiology & Metabolism

PARTS OF A CELL AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 26, 2022

The cells of all living organisms share several structural characteristics together. Some of the many […]

Microorganisms Used in Biotechnological Processes
  • Biotechnology
  • Industrial Microbiology

Microorganisms Used in Biotechnological Processes

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 26, 2022

Biotechnology, the application of biological systems or organisms to develop products and technologies for human […]

MICROBIOTA (NORMAL MICROFLORA) OF LIVING ORGANISMS
  • Bacteriology
  • Medical Microbiology

MICROBIOTA (NORMAL MICROFLORA) OF LIVING ORGANISMS

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 26, 2022

Microbiota which can also be called normal microflora is the totality of microorganisms that are […]

FOOD PRESERVATION
  • Food Microbiology

FOOD PRESERVATION

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 26, 2022

Food preservation is the technique used to prevent food spoilage. It encompass all the methods […]

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES TO OBSERVE WHILE WORKING IN THE MICROBIOLOGY LABORATORY
  • Microbe Lab
  • Safety tips in Microbiology Lab
  • Techniques in Microbiology Lab

PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES TO OBSERVE WHILE WORKING IN THE MICROBIOLOGY LABORATORY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 26, 2022

REFERENCES Atlas R.M (2010). Handbook of Microbiological Media. Fourth edition. American Society of Microbiology Press, […]

SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY
  • General Microbiology

SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 26, 2022

The field of Microbiology has tremendous possibilities and a very bright future, and intending or […]

The History of Virology: From Invisible Pathogens to Modern Scientific Breakthroughs
  • Virology

The History of Virology: From Invisible Pathogens to Modern Scientific Breakthroughs

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 26, 2022

Early discoveries and the birth of virology Virology is the branch of biological science that […]

STAINING TECHNIQUE
  • Medical Microbiology
  • Microbe Lab

STAINING TECHNIQUE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 26, 2022

Staining is any microbiological process which increases the contrast of organisms when certain dyes or […]

MICROBIAL GROWTH PHASE
  • Biotechnology
  • Food Microbiology
  • Industrial Microbiology

MICROBIAL GROWTH PHASE

  • Dr. Chika Ejikeugwu
  • December 26, 2022

Microbial growth is a fundamental biological process that governs the proliferation of microbial cells in […]

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